Imperium
[Romanorum] ac Francorum
The
Ottones 919-1024
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The
Ottonian dynasty was a Saxon dynasty of German monarchs (919–1024), named
after three of its kings and Emperors named Otto, especially its first Emperor
Otto I. It is also known as the Saxon dynasty after the family's origin in
the German stem duchy of Saxony. The family itself is also sometimes known as
the Liudolfings, after its earliest known member Count Liudolf (d. 866) and
one of its primary leading-names. The Ottonian rulers were successors of the
Germanic king Conrad I who was the only Germanic king to rule in East Francia
after the Carolingian dynasty and before this dynasty. In the
9th century, the Saxon count Liudolf held large estates on the Leine river
west of the Harz mountain range and in the adjacent Eichsfeld territory of
Thuringia. His ancestors probably acted as ministeriales in the Saxon stem
duchy, which had been incorporated into the Carolingian Empire after the
Saxon Wars of Charlemagne. Liudolf married Oda, a member of the Frankish
House of Billung. About 852 the couple together with Bishop Altfrid of
Hildesheim founded Brunshausen Abbey, which, relocated to Gandersheim, rose
to a family monastery and burial ground. Liudolf
already held the high social position of a Saxon dux, documented by the marriage of his daughter Liutgard with
Louis the Younger, son of the Carolingian king Louis the Germanin 869.
Liudolf’s sons Bruno and Otto the Illustrious ruled over large parts of Saxon
Eastphalia, moreover, Otto acted as lay abbot of the Imperial abbey of
Hersfeld with large estates in Thuringia. He married Hedwiga, a daughter of
the Babenberg duke Henry of Franconia. Otto possibly accompanied King Arnulf
on his 894 campaign to Italy; the marriage of his daughter Oda with
Zwentibold, Arnulf's illegitimate son, documents the efforts of the
Carolingian ruler to win the mighty Saxon dynasty over as an ally. According
to the Saxon chronicler Widukind of Corvey, Otto upon the death of the last
Carolingian king Louis the Child in 911 was already a candidate for the East
Frankish crown, which however passed to the Franconian duke Conrad I. Upon
Otto's death in 912, his son Henry the Fowler succeeded him as Duke of Saxony.
Henry had married Matilda of Ringelheim, a descendant of the legendary Saxon
ruler Widukindand heiress to extended estates in Westphalia. The
Ottonian rulers of East Francia, the German kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire
were:
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In the Ottonian era the
portraits of the kings can be found on their seals and in some manuscripts
and other media. No coins with portraits have been found, those available
being struck by lesser princes. In the beginning the
regalia consist of a crown to which a staff and a orb were added. It is only by Otto III
that an eagle was introduced on the consular baton and later also as a label
indicating the royal presence. In fact the carolingian tradition was resumed
in a way as in the 8th century eagles were also associated with royal dignity. From this time on the
eagle was a royal emblem of the kings of Germany and their successors until
the present day. The regalia on the contrary, were abandoned at the abolition
of the German monarchy in 1918. |
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In the Ottonian Era the Empire came to be called the Imperium Romanorum ac Francorum by
Otto I who has called himself in several documents of 966 a „Imperator Augustus Romanarum ac Francorum”.
At the same time Widukind of Corvey called the Ottonian Empire the „Imperium Francorum”. For this Empire a ball and a square cross were
introduced by Otto I, his orb crested with a square cross, the orb or disc of
his successors being of gold and charged with a white square cross. |
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Orb of
Otto I |
Orb of Otto II & III |
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The kingdoms making up the Empire were represented
by female personifications:
The kingdoms of the Empire pay homage to Otto III Gospel Book of
Otto III, Munich, Bayerische
Staatsbibliothek, clm 4453, fol. 23v. The four kingdoms of Sclavonia, Germania, Gallia and
Roma are crowned with specific crowns and are bearing an orb, a cornucopia, a
palm-leaf and a sacrificing dish. In a later version the virgins wear uniform
crowns and have orbs in their hands. In the time of Henry II the virgins are
also uniformly crowned but have cornucopia in their hands. Such female personifications reach far back into
antiquity and were continued until the present time. A well known example is Marianne, personifying the
french people. |
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House of Saxony /
Liudolfingian House |
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Henry I the Fowler of Saxony |
*876-†936 Duke of Saxony
912-936 King of Germany
919-936 Emperor 933-936 |
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6. Stamp (Provisional seal): Portrait. Legend: HENRIC⁹ REX. Date: 920.03.04–925.20.03. Staatsarchiv Marburg. 925 März 30.
Stumpf (St.), Reichskanzler Nr. 10.
Legend:
HEINRICVS
REX. In the
beginning besides n° 6 then 926.11.8 until end of rule. Reichsarchiv München. 927
Okt. 18. St. 17. Heffner I. 11 |
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Otto I, the Great |
* 912 - † 973 King of Germany 936
- 973 Proclaimed
Emperor 955 Crowned 02.02.962 King of Italy 963 Otto II
Co-regent 961 |
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Otto I and
his successors only called themselves "Imperator Augustus" when they actually had been crowned in
Rome. They did
not claim West Francia any more so that their Empire merely comprised Germany
and Italy. Representation of
an emperor crowned by two angels. Miniature from the ‘Beneventaner Exultetrolle’ of 985-987. Rom, Biblioteca Apostolica
Vaticana 9820, Fragment 18. |
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It is the general opinion that the so-called
Imperial Crown (Weltliche. & Geistliche Schatzkammer Wien, Inv. Nr. XIII 1) dates from the time of
Otto the Great, reason why it is sometimes called ‘The Ottonian Crown’.
Recently there are new publications ascribing the crown to the Salians [1]. The
crown however seems to be a pastiche
of different remains of regalia found in the treasury of Emperor Frederick
III and was styled for the main part
by Albrecht Dürer. |
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Seal of Otto I the Great Legend: † OTTO IM̅P
AV̅G. Date: 965.17.06 –
970.24.01. Or. Staatsarchiv Magdeburg
Ex. A. 970 Jan. 25. St. 481. The king with crown, staff and orb.
Seal of Otto I, used by Otto II, 974 Seal: The emperor with crown, staff and orb. Legend: X otto imp avg Dark-brown
wax. Æ 6.5 cm. Magdeburg,
Landeshauptarchiv Sachsen Anhalt, Rep. U9, Tit. A I a, Nr. 16: 974 Mai 13. |
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In the
treasury of Cologne cathedral the “staff of St. Peter” with which the saints
Eacharius and Valerius Maternes were supposed to have been revived from death
is preserved. Indeed the turned ivory-knob is a part of a late antique
consular-baton, and an imperial emblem of authority. Parts of the frame date
from the 8th century. Such a staff may
have been used as the imperial staff of Otto I but it is doubted that the
staff from Cologne has belonged to
him. [2] |
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Emperor Otto I and his spouse Adelheid, holding the
successor Otto II, L.: OTTO IMPERATOR. Ivory relief, Milano, ca.
963. Museo del Castello Sforzesco, Milano The
persons next to Christ are probably the father of Otto I, Henry I the Fowler
(†936 and dead for 27 year by then) and his mother St. Mathilda (†968),
called St. Mauritius and St. Mary here. |
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Ciborium above
the altar of the S. Ambrogio in Milan. South-side:
Otto I, Otto II and in the middle Pope John XIII (965-972). |
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Otto II |
*955-†983 Co-regent 961 Romanorum Imperator
967-983 King of Germany
973-983 |
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Fears of Byzantine
interference in Roman politics and conflicting claims in southern Italy soon
brought the two powers into rivalry, and the conflict proved to be the spur
for a major development - the romanization of the western empire. Whereas
Otto I had laid no claim to the Roman title, Otto II, to bolster his claims
against Basil II, proclaimed himself Roman emperor. From this it was
only a short step to describing the empire itself as the Roman Empire, and
this change occurred in Conrad II’ reign. Otto II
is represented as a beardless young boy in a manuscript made for Henry V in
1112-’14, seated on his throne and with an orb and a sceptre crested with an
eagle. [3] This sceptre is not confirmed by sources
contemporary with Otto II but his successor Otto III is represented with such
a sceptre somewhat later
The Emperor Henry II receives the commentaries of Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) on the Prophet
Ezechiel Presentation of „In
Ezech. Prophetam Commentarius Gregorii Magni”. Staatsbibliothek Bamberg,
Msc. Bibl. 84. The king
is seated on a lion’s throne and dressed in red and green. On his head a
triple crown, called the Crown of Germania in the time of Otto III. In his
hand a consular baton. The short curly beard and the baton are the main
reasons why the portrait is ascribed to Otto II., probably at the age of 18
(election as a king of Germany). |
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Å
Statue of an Emperor, probably Otto II in the church of St. John of Müstair (Graubünden, Switzerland). The Emperor
with orb and lily-sceptre. On his head an imperial crown of Byzantine shape.
The statue is announced on the spot to be the statue of Charlemagne.
Deducing from the attitude of the right hand the
sceptre may be a later addition, replacing for example a flower or fleur de
lis (meaning the same armed authority). In the 12th century
such a bearded man became the artistic stereotype of an Emperor. |
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The globe
formerly held in hand Museum
Müstair |
The lily-sceptre of the statue |
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The crown Consisting of a decorated circled and four plates
applied As an emperor a hoop and pendilia were added: |
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Ivory relief with Otto II and Theophanu. Southern Italy, 972-983. Ivory, four fixing holes
some broken out. H. 18,5 cm, B. 10,6 cm Paris, Musée Nationale du
Moyen Age, Thermes & l’Hôtel de Cluny, Inv. Nr. Cl. 392. Christ
blesses Otto II and Theophanu. At the feet of Otto II the artist has
represented himself. Next to the
head of Christ: IC XC On his
right side: K[YPI]E BOHQ[E]IT[ѠC[Ѡ]DOYA[Ѡ]IѠ[ANNH]MONA?]XѠ AMEM (Lord, help your
servant, the monk Johannes, Amen. Above the
head of Otto: OTTO IMP aC RMA
(Otto, Roman Emperor Augustus) Above the
head of Theophanu: QEOΦANѠ IMP aC (Theophanu
Empress Augusta)
The Emperor between two bishops Seeon Pontificale. Bamberg, Staatliche Bibliothek, MSC Lit 53, fol. 2 v. This
emperor is thought to be Henry II (1002-’24)
but has the short curly beard of Otto II. The two bishops may be the
archbishops of Cologne and Trier, who were struggling for the primacy of
their archdioceses. Candidates are
Archbishop Egbert of Trier (977-993)
and Warin of Cologne (976-985). The emperor is crowned and has an orb or disc in
his left hand, charged with a cross. In his right hand he had a lily-sceptre
which has been erased but is still vaguely visible. Probably this was done to
make him Henry II who, for a short time, was denied the possession of the
regalia by archbishop Heribert of Cologne. |
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Theophanu |
*960 ca-†15.06.991 ¥ Otto II 18.05.972 Regent 984-991 |
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Sacramentary of Petershausen Reichenau, 970-980. Vellum,
266 leaves. Coating paint with gold and silver. Original oaken cover with
sheepskin. H.24 cm, W. 18,5 cm Heidelberg,
Universitätsbibliothek, Cod. Sal. IX b. |
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The leaf
represented here is page 40v and is supposed to be a portrait of the Virgin
Mary. Another
possiblility is that the lady represented is in fact Empress Theophanu. The
portrait can be compared with her portrait on the ivory from the Hôtel de
Cluny but even better with the portrait of her son Otto III. Her face is
painted white according Byzantine fashion and she wears a byzantine diadem in
her hair. Also she has a wide golden
collar and ear-rings and in all she is dressed as a real empress. Around
her head she has a golden halo which makes her an imperial princess, the disc
symbolizing the empire itself. In her
right hand she keeps a golden latin cross symbolizing religious authority
which rested with the emperor and was delegated to the empress (compare for
example the double cross on the dress of the Byzantine empresses). The cross
Theophanu is holding in her hand is the so-called ‘Cross of Theophanu’ which still
exists and is preserved in the treasury of Essen Cathedral. Æ Cross of Theophanu (Treasury of Essen
Cathedral). A provision to attach a staff is on the foot of the cross. [4] |
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Another portrait
of Theophanu can be found in a church in Rome. Here she is represented with
her young son.
Fresco of Empress Theophanu as
a regent of Otto III, (984-991). Basilica
Inferiora di S. Clemente, Roma. The Empress
(here of the age of about 30) is seated on a throne and is dressed in a
blueish robe. She wears a crown with prependoulia and groups of three
pearls (which also can be fleurs-de-lis) on her head. This crown is to
be compared with the crowns of Otto I and Otto II which have also these
groups of pearls. On her lap she has Otto III, then in the age of between 3
and 10. See also: Glory of Byzantium p. 140. |
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Otto III |
*981-†1002 King of Germany 983 - 1002 Co-regent 983 Emperor 996 |
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The first
imperial dress of Otto III consisted of a white tunica and a red cloak. It
was completed with a crown, a consular baton and a golden orb charged with a
square cross, symbolizing the Christian empire.
The Emperor Otto III with the symbols of the four
parts of his Empire. Master of the Registrum
Gregorii. Trier, ca 985, 25,5 ´ 20 cm. Musée
Condé, Chantilly. The parts of the Empire here represented are royally
crowned and are holding the symbols of their kingdoms. |
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Ottonian Gospels. Trier?, about 996. Apotheose
of Otto III. Aachen, Domschatzkammer n°
25 According
to tradition the Gospels are a present of Otto III to the Aachen coronation
abbey. Otto III
in imperial dress sieated on a throne upheld by an angel, crowned by God’s
hand between the symbols of the four evangelists with a byzantine type of
crown, in his right a orb with cross. On his
right and left two ensign-bearers with red banners and in base two warriors
with purple shields and two clerics with their bibles. All
persons are dressed in white and have red cloaks |
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The Mosaic in the Apse of the S. Ambrogio in
Milan.
Portrait of Saint Protasius but probably Otto III The mosaic
was thoroughly restored between 1839 and 1844 under the direction of Giovanni
Moro. In August 1943 almost one sixth of the surface was lost. This part was
outlined with a red line at the restoration of 1997. The
dating of both parts is controversial.
It is thought that the mosaic dates from the beginning of the 13th
century after the church had been destroyed for its largest part in 1191. Al
centro, su un fondo di tessere d'oro, sormontato da un ombraciolo policromo,
è il Christo pantokrator assiso su
un grande trono gemmato, con nimbero crocifero, che benedice con la mano
destra, mentre con la sinistra tiene il libro aperto su cui è la scritta «Ego sum lux mundi». Ai lati del trono sono
i martiri Gervaso e Protaso, sui quali planano in volo gli arcangeli Michele
e Gabriele recanti corone (individuati, come Cristo, dai loro nomi in greco).
Alla base del trono sono tre medaglioni con i busti dei santi Marcellina,
Satiro e Candida. The
hypothesis is: The
central part with Christ Pantocrator and the two figures date from the end of
the 10th or the beginning of the 11th century. Represented are Christ as
supreme ruler of the Imperium Romanum
and, next to him, Otto III. He is dressed in a white tunica and a purple
cloak. In his right hand he holds a latin cross, symbol of the catholic
church or of religious authority. Above him the archangel Michael is hovering
with a (Western) Imperial Crown. On the left side of Christ is a Byzantien
co-emperor, also dressed in a white tunica and with a green cloak. On his
head a crown and in his left hand a double cross, symbol of the Orthodox
Church of Constantinople. Above his head the Archangel Gabriel is hovering
with and Imperial diadem with a crosslet. The
representation of Otto III can be compared with other portraits of him among
other things in Ms. Clm. 4453 in the
Bavarian State Library in Munich, but especially with the portrait in his
gospels in the Treasury of Aachen Cathedral. For the other person Constantine
VIII qualifies. He was the brother of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II and his
co-regent from 962 until 1025. His
portrait should be compared with the portrait of an emperor in the Book Job
in the Royal Library of Kopenhagen Saml. 6,2° but also with the Veronica of
St. Austremoine in the Musée des Tissus in Lyon.
Portrait of
Saint Gervasius but probably Constantine VIII The names
of the saints next to the figures are added later. It is
striking that the cloaks are decorated with a kind of tablion, much worn in Byzantium in ancient times. Also the tunica
and the cloak of the Byzantine prince are decorated with a pattern resembling
the pattern which decorated the dress of the Byzantine emperors and empresses
in that time. For the portraits on the medallions below the throne Basil II
(976-1025), Zoë and her mother qualify. Consequently
it is possible that the mosaic has been ordered by Otto III and that he
himself is portrayed together with Constantine VIII. Because he was engaged
with his daughter Zoë, he forcibly was his future son in law. It is to the
credit of the attribution to Otto III that on the ciborium are the portraits of Otto I and Otto II and in addition
the portraits of the empresses Adelheid and Theophanu. So the church was
generously gifted by the Ottones and the presentation of a mosaic by Otto III
would fit into this tradition. |
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At the
end of his life the imperial style was changed in that the colors red and
blue, symbolizing the armed and administartive authority were changed for green
and purple which are the colors of sovereignty and supreme command. Also, the
eagle was introduced which is the consular emblem and the emblem of royal
command
The Emperor Otto III in Ceremony Reichenau, end 10th century.
Presented by Henry II to Bamberg Cathedral. München, Bay.
Staatsbibliothek Ms. Clm 4453.fol.24r 995 ca.
Otto IIIseated on a lion’s throne
between prelates and warriors. He is dressed in a purple tunica and a green
mantle. On his head a crown of three leaves, in his right hand an eagle’s
sceptre and in his left an orb with cross. The warriors, i.e. the marshal and
the constable, with sword, lance and a green shield The green
of the shield means that Otto III is represented as a co-emperor (983) and
regent (983-996). Judging after the portrait of Otto III the picture must
have been made in the last years of his regency, for example in 995 when he
was of the age of fourteen.
Imperial seal of Otto III Obv.: Portrait of the crowned emperor. Legend: OTTO IMPERATOR AVGVSTVS. Date: 998. München
Bayrisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, KS 179 (Hochstift Passau) The
Emperor, here of the age of 17, wears a short curly beard. On his head is a
cap crested with three pearls and surrounded by a diadem set with groups of
three pearls a little bit resembling fleurs de lis. As Otto
III is always represented beardless we may suppose that the stamp of his
father, who had a short (curly) beard, was used. |
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Chasuble of Saint Albuin (†1006) in Bressanone. Supposed to have belonged
to Bishop Ermanno (1140-‘64). This silk is
purple red with a black design of
eagles. Museo Diocesano,
Bressanone (Brixen) [5] The cloth may have been used for a wall- or
tent-hanging before being made into a chasuble. A contemporary piece of cloth
also showing large eagles is the so-called cloth of St. Germanus today in
Auxerre. Otto III
died on his return from Rome in 1002 at the age of hardly 22 in Paterno
castle near Civita Castellana (Lazio, prov. Viterbo). Henry II awaited the funeral
procession in Polling on the Ammer (Upper Bavaria) to lay hands on the
insignia. The procession for that reason has passed the Brenner- and Fern
mountain passes and the monastery of Brixen. For that reason it is probable
that this piece of silk has belonged to Otto III and was left in Brixen for
some reason (for payement?). The silk, in any case, is of the imperial color
purple and the eagle is the famous consular badge of rank fitting Otto III. |
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Henry II |
*06.05.973-†1024 Duke of Bavaria
995-1004 ∞ 999 Cunigunde *975-†1040 King of Germany 1002-1024 crowned Würzburg
06.06.1002 King of Italy,
crowned Pavia 1004 Duke of Bavaria 2nd
time 1009-1017 Emperor 14.02.1014-1024 |
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1007-1012 Coronation of the ducal couple and the homage
by the submitted nations. Book of
Pericopes of Henry II (*973-†1024). Reichenau, 1007-’12. From the Treasury of
Bamberg Cathedral. Bayer. Staatsbibliothek München, Cod lat. 4452, fol. 2 r.
Duke
Henry IV of Bavaria, the later Henry II, and Duchess Kunigunde (married 995),
supported by St Peter and Paul each receive a diadem from Otto III. The
central figure below with orb and sceptre, the one on her right with a crown
of laurel and the one on her left with
a white sphere with a red cross. Likely the provinces of the Lombard monarchy
are represented viz. Italy, Sclavonia
(i.e. Croatia) and Rome. L.: tractando iustum discernite semper honestv utile conveniat consultum
legis ut optat. (Do justice and always grip what is honourable. The
useful may be found in what the law’s council wants) Below: solvimus
ecce tibi rex censum iure perenni clemens es totuis nos reddimus ista quot
annis. Siehe, (King we bring you the tax according to everlasting law. Be
merciful to yours, we bring it year after year)
So-called older crown of Kunigunde München, Schatzkammer der
Residenz.. Gift of Bishop Günther to Bamberg Cathedral
1063-’65. Formerly in the Treasury of Bamberg Cathedral. Since 1805 in the
Treasury of Munich Residence. This crown resembles the crowns as represented
on the coronation scene. The little holes in the rim probably for hanging prependoulia |
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Style and
technique of the crown are very much similar to the Imperial Cross in the Weltliche
Schatzkammer in Vienna (1024/’25). In that case the crown was made for Queen
Cunigunde for her coronation on 10 August 1002. Later the reliquiary of the
empress was crowned with it. |
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6 June 1002 So it was without the support of the
Kingdom's nobility that Henry took the radical action of having himself
anointed and crowned King of Germany (“Rex Romanorum”) by Willigis, Archbishop
of Mainz on 9 July 1002 at Mainz. Henry's action marked the first time a German king was not crowned
in Aachen
Cathedral since Emperor
Otto I began the tradition in 936 and the
first time a German king assumed the throne without election by the German
nobility. Under the regal name of “King Henry II”, he appeared before the Saxons in mid-July in full regal apparel.
There, Henry convinced Bernard I, Duke of Saxony to support his claims to the
throne. In return for his support, Henry guaranteed Bernard's right to rule
the Saxons and to represent their interests before him.
Emperor Henry II sitting enthroned In the Sacramentary of Henry II
today in the Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek in München
(Clm 4456, Fol. 11v) At his coronation in Rome on 14 February 1014 the pope gave the insignia
of authority to Henry II. These consisted of a ring, a sword, a crown and a
sceptre. On this
leaf, almost copied from a leaf from the Codex Aureus von Sankt
Emmeram representing
Henry II, the emperor
is sitting under a ciborium
(permanent baldachin) dressed in a purple tunica and a red cloak, crowned
with a crown of four (three) leaves. In his right hand he has a lily-sceptre
and in his left and a orb, crested with a cross. The ring,
when present, is not visible. The
emperor is assisted by his constable and his marshal carrying his sword and
his shield, the shield quarterly Purpure and Vert a cross and a bordure Or.
These are the Imperial colours, the purple symbolizing the imperial dignity
and the green the supreme command The Holy
Lance is missing on this representation and neither has the emperor red shoes
Byzantine fashion. Also, the
hoop of the crown as on the miniature of 1002 is missing, the crown
continuing the tradition of Otto III. The
inscriptions read: „ECCE TRIUMPHATIS TERRARUM PARTIB[US] ORBIS. INNUMERARE GENTES DOMINANTIA
IUSSA GERENTES MUNERIBUS MULTIS VENERATUR CULM[EN] HONORIS. | TALIA NUNC GAUDE FIERI REX O BENEDICTE NAM DITIONE TUA SUNT OMNIA IURA
SUBACTA H[A]EC MODO SUSCIPIAS C[A]ELI SUMPTURE CORONAS.“ (See, after parts of the earth are conquered, countless peoples execute
the orders of the Lord and honour the summit of honour with many presents. Be
glad, blessed king that such happens now, because to your power all justice
is subordinated. Take this now, in the future you will receive the heavenly
Crown.)
Royal seal of Henry II L.: X HEINRICHVS
DIGRATIA REX 14 May 1004 Henry II receives the Lombard royal crown out of the
hands of the Archbishp of Milan Arnolfo II da Arsago (998-1018). |
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14 February 1014
Miniature from the Sacramentary of Henry II., today in the Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek in München
(Clm 4456, Fol. 11r) On this page from the Regensburg Sacramentary Henry II is
crowned by Christ. In his right hand he has the Holy
Lance and in his left hand the Imperial
Sword each presented to him by an angel. On the lower part of his tunica are little shields quarterly Azure and
Gules, a cross Or, surrounded by a bordure set with precious stones. These
indicate Christian (the cross) administrative (the blue) and armed (the red)
authority. In fact these are the royal colors and consequently the scene
depicts the inauguration of Henry II as a king of Germany on 6 June 1002. The Holy Lance was made a part of the regalia for the first and the last
time on 25 July 1002 when it was presented by Duke Bernard of Saxony to Henry
II after he had made some concessions to the Saxon nobility. In a way, this
miniature must be a piece of propaganda as the Holy Lance was rendered 50 days after the event depicted. Next to him are two prelates for which archbishop Heribert
of Cologne (999-1021) and archbishop Erkanbald of Mayence (1011-1021) are
qualifying. [6] The
Sacramentary was donated by Henry II to Bamberg Cathedral. The
inscriptions read: Around the
mandorla: + CLEMENS XPE TUO LONGV[M] DA VIVERE XPICTO. VT TIBI DEUOTUS N[ON] PERDAT TEMPORIS VSUS (Gracious Christ, give your anointed one a long
life that he will not waste the time given to him by
you) The horizontal
and vertical lines: + ECCE CORONATUR DIUINITUS ATQ[UE] BEATUR REX PIUS HEINRICVS P[RO]AURORUM STIRPE POLOSUS. + HUIUS UODALRICUS COR REGIS SIGNET ET ACTUS + EMMERAMUS EI FAVEAT SOLAMINE DULCI. PROPULSANS CURAM SIBI CONFERIT ANGELUS HASTA[M]. APTAT ET HIC ENSE[M] CUI P[RAE]SIGNANDO TIMORE[M] (See, by God is crowned and blessed the pious, through his ancestry highly estimated
King Henry May Ulrich bless the heart and deeds of the King May Emmeram make him happy with sweet
consolation An angel brings the lance and averts anxious
sorrow from him The other gives him the sword with which he
spreads fear) |
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As an
emblem of state the crescent is remarkably absent in the Ottonian Empire. This
suggests that in fact there was no state at all. Instead we encounter the
combination of Christ crucified between a sun and a moon symbolizing the
realm, the state and the (spiritual-) ruler of the Empire of Christ. A kind of
state was the court of the Ottonian House of which the head had taken the
title of Imperator Augustus together with the badge of rank of a consul. To
its court belonged a Seneschal, a Marshal, a Chamberlain and a Cup-bearer.
The symbol of the ruler supported by any kind of animal badges of military
rank developed into the achievements symbolizing the state of later empires,
kingdoms duchies and other realms. In this development the crescent
symbolizing the (monolithic-) state, disappeared completely in Western Europe
only to survive as a symbol of the Holy Virgin. It was maintained in the
successor states of the Eastern Roman empire. The court
officials each had their own badge, the seneschal a shield, the marshal a
sword, the cup-bearer a chalice and the chamberlain probably a mace. Court offices at the high
medieval royal court: At the German royal court four main court offices
(Truchseß, Marshal, Mundschenk, chamberlain) were formed under the Ottones,
which later developed into the four arch-offices of the empire. At the coronation
of Otto I in the Aachen Palace (936)
for example, the four court offices were solemnly exercised by the
four tribal dukes present. In the course of the 12th century the four arch
court offices came into the hands of the powerful secular princes, which was
confirmed in the Sachsenspiegel. In the Golden Bull of 1356 the four court
offices of the empire are then in the hereditary possession of the four
secular electors. In addition, at the German royal court in the daily court
service there were also four main offices, which since the 11th century were
mainly provided by ministerials. Amongst the Staufers we meet in the court
offices several Reichsdienstmänner (Servants
of the Empire) who occupied important positions in the royal administration
of the empire.
Silk weaving with achievement of Otto III 57.2 ´ 101.2 cm.
Würzburg, Mainfränkisches Museum, Inv. Nr. H 5604 The
achievement, which is known as the ‘Alexander the Great elevated by Eagles
cloth’ consists of Otto III himself, crowned and with two scepters in saltire
supported by two eagles all in full color. The text on the right reads: ...M CVM PACIS
PROMERE VERSICUL[IS] // MIRACVLA POLI LIBVIT PRO SPIR [...] (with a few verses I will tell // it
pleased him the miracles of heaven) [7] This
achievement may have been an experiment but has Persian and Assyrian
predecessors. It was serious enough, as it symbolizes the royal/consular
government of Otto III. Such achievements were very rare in the middle ages but
the idea originates in Persian and Assyrian antiquity. An ancient european is
known from a tomb now in the Municipal Museum of Bourges, showing a ruler
supported by two lions. In Oslo and in the Hoard of Sutton Hoo there are also
representations of rulers supported
instead by two lions. |
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Administrative
autority was symbolized as usual by a square cross. Square crosses can be found
on 10th century coins but these are almost all locally minted which suggests
that administrative authority was distributed amongst petty rulers. Medallions and shield of Henry II The
shield of Henry II is quarterly Purpure and Vert, by a cross Or. It is
circular and slightly vaulted and has a buckle in its centre. It has a
bordure Or, set with precious stones. It is likely that with the golden
fitting a cross is meant because in an older manuscript medallions are
represented on the dress of Henry II on which there unmistakably are crosses.
Medallions
quarterly with a cross were represented in the 8th century on the
frontispiece of the Sacramentary of St Gelasius (Bibl. Apostolica Vaticana).
On it medallions are visible which are quarterly Or and Vert a cross purpure,
and vice versa and Or and Gules (and vv.). They are mounted on a latin cross
very likely meant to be a symbol of
the Pope. |
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Shield of the Marshal of Henry II München. Bay. Staatsbibliothek Clm 4456 fol 11 v°. |
Medallion on the tunica of Henry II München. Bay. Staatsbibliothek Clm 4456 fol 11 r°. |
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In the Ottonian
Empire like in the rest of Western Europe the symbol of religious authority
was a latin cross. This was created in christian times when it was introduced
by Constantine the Great. The latin crosses made in the Ottonian Era are a
confirmation of this symbol of christian faith. They are of impressive
manufacture of gold and set with precious stones after the examples in
mosaics in Rome. They are a croncretisation of the symbol which was also
known in a more graphic form
1000 ca. Cross of Lothair. 50´38.5´2.3 cm (Treasury
Aachen Cathedral). Gold, set
with precious stones. In the middle a cameo of sardonyx with a portrait of
Augustus with a crown of laurel and consular baton with eagle. This
cross is supposed to be a symbol of the idea of the “renovatio imperii Romanorum” but probably it represents the
Imperial church as aspired to by the Ottonian emperors. This would explain
the cameo representing an emperor with
eagle’s sceptre on the place of the crucified Christ. It also explains the
latin cross hold in hand by Otto IIII on the mosaic in the apse of St.
Ambrgio Cathedral in Milan, and by Henry II on his Imperial Portrait. The
combination symbolizes Imperial Religious authority. With the downfall of the
idea in the time of Henry V this cross became obsolete and it was not
imitated later. |
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Armed
authority was symbolized by the XP-cypher but this seems to have been
abandoned by the Ottones. Instead the the Holy Lance, the sword and the more Roman
symbol of the fleur de lys were introduced. |
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Å Ceremonial Sword and
Sheath, about 1000 Essen, Hohe Domkirche, Domschatzkammer. Probably it came to
be a part of the treasury of the cathedral in the time of Abbess Mathilde
(973-1011), a granddaughter of Otto the Great. According to tradition it was
presented by Otto III. The chased reliefs
in the sheath show regular spirals of tendrils enclosing lions, birds and
dragon-like beings. The sword carried
by the constable of Otto has a similar hilt but the sheath is still covered
with green velvet. [8]
The constables of
Otto III and of Henry II each bearing a sword as a
badge of office In this time the christogram as a symbol of armed authority
had disappeared in Germany even when it continued its existence in Spain. In the north we see a development of the sword as a
badge of office to a symbol of supreme
command which played a role at the
inauguration of the Emperor and King. Later, when historic swords from the
royal or imperial treasury were used at inauguration ceremonies, such swords
were labelled “The Sword of State” and came to symbolize the armed authority
of rulers in general. |
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Imperial seal Reverse: The Emperor with helmet,
spear with pennon and shield. Legend:
RENOVATIO IMPERII ROMANORVM. Date:
998. Müchen, Bayrische Hauptsaatsarchiv, KS 179 (Hochstift Passau 23) Henry the
Fowler is represented on his seal with shield and spear. The spear goes back
at least to Merovingian times when Childeric was armed with spear on his
seal. His shield we may suppose to have been of the color red like the
shields of his predecessors. His spear, which is a pastiche of metal parts dating from the 7th or 8th century, was
probably preserved by his son Otto I and was described by Liudprand of
Cremona in 961. He describes it as ....having
on its pin crosses of nails which were
driven through the hands and feet of our Lord Jesus Christ...’ |
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and such
crosses are on the spearhead indeed. [9]
It was later made a part of the regalia, that is to say a part of the
objects playing a role in the inauguration ceremonies of his successors, symbolizing
the authority inherited from their father and ancestors. The spear
of Henry the Fowler is called the Holy Spear nowadays and is preserved in the
Weltliche und Geistliche Schatzkammer
in Vienna (Austria). Some diffference
of opinion about the insignia had arisen after the death of Otto III. Henry
II had planned to lay hands on them when the funeral of Otto III returned
from Rome. For that reason he for some time imprisoned the Bishop of Cologne
who controlled the insignia. The Bishop refused to hand them over because he
did not agree with the candidature of Henry II. Some items, among which the
Holy Lance by the way had been sent in advance already. The coronation
finally took place on 6 July 1002 in Würzburg but he was given the Holy Lance
(by duke Bernhard I of Saxony) only after he had made some concessions to the
Saxon nobiliy, on 25 July. The Holy
Lance was a replacement for all the
other insignia when King Henry was given the care for the Empire in 1015. This
was the first and only time the Holy lance was used at the imperial
coronation ceremonies. |
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The Shields of Otto III. Like his
father and grandfather Otto III was represented on his seals in coat of arms
with a shield in his left and a pennon in his right hand. The
shields in connection with Otto III are of two kinds: circular and all purple
and circular and all green. |
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Shield of the Guard (?) of Otto After: Aachen, Domschatzkammer n° 25 |
Shield of the Marshal of Otto After: München, Bay. Staatsbibliothek Ms. Clm 4453 |
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The shield of the marshal of Henry II combines the
imperial colors:
Shield of the Marshal of Henry II München. Bay. Staatsbibliothek Clm 4456 fol 11 v°. |
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After the fall of the Roman Empire the Roman
Armies disappeared from the West. The use of the christogram however was continued by its
successor states and many examples are known from the Vandal, Frankish and
Visigotic kingdoms. The
christogram remained the emblem of the amed forces as long as these remained
one of the institutions of the empire and a part of the state. In Byzantium
such armed forces were soon replaced by an armed force strictly loyal to the
emperor after the model of a Praetorian
Guard or personal armed
force of the ruler. The emblem of such a guard had been a thunderbolt and this emblem
developed into the so-called fleur de lis which was
employed as well by the Byzantine imperial guard as well as by the armed
forces of many West-European rulers. As a result the christogram disappeared
completely as a symbol of armed authority after the 11th-12th century, and
was replaced almost everywhere by a thunderbolt/fleur de lis. |
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© Hubert de Vries 2018-01-13